Growing Crime Problem of Juvenile Delinquency Essay

Growing Crime Problem of Juvenile Delinquency - Essay Example We can then make a speculation on the future and offer recommendations to confront this unique challenge. In the last 200 years in the United States, children have held a special status within the framework of the law. However, the age at which they were considered juveniles has been subject to change over the years. In the early 1800s, most children that we consider to be juveniles today were treated as adults under the law. As late as 1827, a child at the age of 10 was considered to be of age to accept full adult criminal responsibility under the law in Illinois (Ferro 2003 p.3). In fact, the term 'delinquency' did not appear in US law until the turn of the twentieth century as social upheaval transformed our urban areas and juvenile crime became more prevalent and problematic. During this period, industrialization had brought people together in large urban areas from all over the country and the world seeking employment in the newly established factories in cities such as Chicago, New York, and Detroit. Social pressures and poverty fueled rising crime in the general population. This rise in crime among adults was mirrored in the juvenile population. States have often held great authority over the handling of juvenile crime. Delinquents would often be relegated to poorhouses, county farms, or reform schools. But by the 1920s, America was more cognizant of juvenile crime and its effect on the established social order. The move to the Sun Belt during the 1930s and 1940s magnified the problem in cities such as Los Angeles and Phoenix. Crime statistics from this period are largely fragmented and anecdotal. However, there was a concern among the population about the growing juvenile delinquency problem. President Herbert Hoover created the Wickersham Commission to investigate the rising crime rate. The report issued in 1931 found that, "...turf wars were being waged in America's large cities by rival criminal groups fighting for control of bootleg liquor distribution" (Ferro 2003 p.4). Gang crime and their influence on juveniles continues to dominate the juvenile delinquency issue. The post World War II era saw a beginning of the rise in adult crime that was echoed by juvenile delinquency. Access to media, technology, and mobility has contributed to the problem. Beginning in 1960, there was an increase in juvenile delinquency that peaked in the early 1990s (Ferro 2003 p.4). However, beginning in 1980 there was also a rapid escalation in the violence of juvenile crime and the reported incidents of gang activity and guns. Between 1978 and 1993 violent crime by juveniles rose 79% and the murders committed by juveniles soared by 177% (Levitt 1998 p.1156). Though the overall juvenile crime rate has gone down in recent years, the rates of more serious and violent crimes have not seen as dramatic of a decline. According to statistics complied by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, from 2001-2005 the total violent crime rate among juveniles has dropped, but forcible rape has not experienced the same decline (Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics 2006). Much of the pr evalence of violent juvenile crime has come as a result of, or can be attributed to, gang activity (Ferro 2003 p.5). Juveniles in contact with gang members, whether peers or family members, may emulate their activity even though they may not be a member of a gang. In

Living on Your Own Essay Example for Free

Living on Your Own Essay Living on your own doesnt seem to be a big deal in the beginning. Despite all the disadvantages of living on your own the benefits of it are far greater. While living on your own you can develop important life skills such as time management and greater responsibility, which will lead to a more mature stage of life. When this stage of life is achieved you can decide what and how you want to live the rest of your life. When it comes to the point of living away from your parents house a big door to freedom is opened up where there is nobody except yourself and a lot of time and things you can play with. Privacy is perhaps one of the most important things you receive when you are living on your own. Coming home from work or school to find there is nobody sitting watching a TV program you do not like or someone trying to force you to eat when you are not hungry. Also there will be nobody there to annoy you with their questions or their whole day in detail on a daily basis. On top of the privacy issue most young people these days are complaining that there is someone pushing on them for their time management. If you are living on your own this problem will virtually cease to exist. You have to decide when the rime comes to do your homework, eat, sleep, go to school or go to work. It seems if you have all that freedom nobody can stop you from doing whatever you want when you want except for you. This is great as long as you manage your time well and dont just end up partying all the time, but also have time for school and work things will be great. Another great thing about living on your own is that it is very challenging and adventurous. Great opportunities come around every day which you can take advantage of. The best thing about it is even if the opportunity you had fails you dont feel embarrassed in front of anybody but yourself. It is obviously better when things work out for you and you feel very proud of yourself because you did it by yourself. In conclusion There are many great more advantages to living on your own than  not. By having total freedom, not having people push on you and making your descisions for you and you have the advantage of learning about life on your own. By lving on your own you will face the biggest challenge in your life. It is human nature to strike out on your own and live independently.

The Behaviorist and Cognitive Approaches to Psychology Essay -- Papers

The Behaviorist and Cognitive Approaches to Psychology In this essay I am going to explore two of the major approaches to Psychology, Cognitive theories and Behaviorist theories. I will discuss in some detail the two approaches, state how they compare and illustrate the similarities and the differences between them. John Watson, one of the founders of Behaviorism, based his theories on the principles of learning outlined by Pavlov who suggested the theory known as Classical Conditioning; he trained dogs to salivate whenever he rang a bell. Dogs have a natural reflex response to salivate when they see food, Pavlov rang a bell when the dogs were given food and after several repetitions of this action, the dogs began to salivate whenever they heard the bell, even when there was not any food there. This approach rejected the idea of the conscious mind. Albert Ellis & Aaron T Beck developed the present form of the Cognitive approach to psychology in the 1950’s. This development emerged from a growing dissatisfaction with the narrowness of the behaviorist approach as it neglects complex human activities such as planning and communication. Behaviorists emphasize the relationship between the environment surrounding a person and how it affects a person’s behavior. This approach has a tendency to ignore mental processes. Behaviorists believe that studying the brain is not ultimately the best or most effective way to understand behavior. A person might act oddly in one particular environment, but normal in others. Whilst cognitive psychologists agree with the behaviorist theory that the environment surrounding a person does have some inf... ...hey may be thinking or feeling, if focuses on what you can see not the emotions. It is difficult to measure the thinking or feeling of independence and the behaviour of others, as well as the expectations of others in any particular given situation, for example John Watson believed that given the right environment anybody could be made into anything. Sources of Information ====================== Psychology – A New Introduction by Richard Gross, Rob McIlveen, Hugh Coolicun, Alan Clamp and Julia Russell (Twelfth Edition) Hilgards Introduction to Psychology by Rita L Atkinson, Richard C Atkison, Edward G Smith, Daryl J Bern and Susan Nolen-Hoeksema (Second Edition) Basic Psychology by Henry Gleitman (First Edition) www.sntp.net/behaviourism.thml http://scs.une.edu.au/Materials/573/573_4.html

HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES :: essays research papers

HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES? How the world around us is represented mentally is the corner stone of cognitive architectures. It facilitates understanding of information received and perceived from our environment. The storage and retrieval of knowledge would be impossible without mental representations. Mental representations are the way in which we create ‘copies’ of the real things around us, which we perceive. A description of a representation is a symbol, sign, image or a depiction that takes the place of a real object in the real world. . Representations were broadly categorised into three. The ‘analogue representation’ the ‘propositional representation’ and ‘procedural rules’. Analogue representations are those which have an image-like copy quality to them, whereas the propositional representation are based on language-like constructs. Since the arrival of connectionism another representation has been proposed that of sub-symbolic representation. Here mental representations, according to Eysenk and Keane (2002) are â€Å"distributed† patterns of activation in a connectivist network. Historically, mental representations have been interpreted by analogy with physical representations, i.e. descriptions and classifications devised for physical representations have been applied to mental representations (Paivio, 1986). Physical representations can be picture-like or language-like (see Table). Physical and mental representations physical representations  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  picture-like  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  language-like examples  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  photographs drawings maps diagrams  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  human-language formal systems: maths, symbolic logic computer programs properties  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  analogue iconic continuous  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  non-analogue non-iconic digital/discrete Table: Types of physical representations (after Paivio, 1986) The representations need then to be categorised for storage in long -term memory. These ‘packages’ of knowledge are classed as being either procedural knowledge or declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something or precisely what to do. It is sets of rules or procedures and skills like playing the piano. Declarative knowledge is about facts. Representations allow cognitive models to work as they are the ‘substance’ the models work on. The models for discussion share common features but are equally differentiated from each other at some level. Before looking at each of the theories mental representations it would be helpful to take a snapshot of the model structures and approaches to learning and processing to gain a fuller understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. The models compared here are Schema theory (Rummelhart and Norman 1983) ACT* Anderson) and PDP. Schema theory is said to offers a unified theory of cognition as it umbrellas all areas of cognition. It is interactive and works on stored knowledge or long-term memory. It does not address any wider structural issues. Schema is about how our learning is influenced by our previous knowledge. HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES :: essays research papers HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES? How the world around us is represented mentally is the corner stone of cognitive architectures. It facilitates understanding of information received and perceived from our environment. The storage and retrieval of knowledge would be impossible without mental representations. Mental representations are the way in which we create ‘copies’ of the real things around us, which we perceive. A description of a representation is a symbol, sign, image or a depiction that takes the place of a real object in the real world. . Representations were broadly categorised into three. The ‘analogue representation’ the ‘propositional representation’ and ‘procedural rules’. Analogue representations are those which have an image-like copy quality to them, whereas the propositional representation are based on language-like constructs. Since the arrival of connectionism another representation has been proposed that of sub-symbolic representation. Here mental representations, according to Eysenk and Keane (2002) are â€Å"distributed† patterns of activation in a connectivist network. Historically, mental representations have been interpreted by analogy with physical representations, i.e. descriptions and classifications devised for physical representations have been applied to mental representations (Paivio, 1986). Physical representations can be picture-like or language-like (see Table). Physical and mental representations physical representations  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  picture-like  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  language-like examples  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  photographs drawings maps diagrams  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  human-language formal systems: maths, symbolic logic computer programs properties  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  analogue iconic continuous  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  non-analogue non-iconic digital/discrete Table: Types of physical representations (after Paivio, 1986) The representations need then to be categorised for storage in long -term memory. These ‘packages’ of knowledge are classed as being either procedural knowledge or declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something or precisely what to do. It is sets of rules or procedures and skills like playing the piano. Declarative knowledge is about facts. Representations allow cognitive models to work as they are the ‘substance’ the models work on. The models for discussion share common features but are equally differentiated from each other at some level. Before looking at each of the theories mental representations it would be helpful to take a snapshot of the model structures and approaches to learning and processing to gain a fuller understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. The models compared here are Schema theory (Rummelhart and Norman 1983) ACT* Anderson) and PDP. Schema theory is said to offers a unified theory of cognition as it umbrellas all areas of cognition. It is interactive and works on stored knowledge or long-term memory. It does not address any wider structural issues. Schema is about how our learning is influenced by our previous knowledge.

History of Jesuits in Latin America Essay

The presence of the Catholic Church in almost all the corners of the world has gone on unchallenged. For centuries, Catholic Orders have played a role in exerting social, religious and economic influences over underdeveloped remote societies. Whereas today such missions may have deemed redundant especially with the emergence of rival denominations and modernization, history is laden with examples of such missions that changed the course of societies. One such presence that has been closely examined and one recognized for the multi-tiered influence it had on the society is the Jesuits Order in Latin America. In their wake, they left a society with an established network of economic, social and educational order before they were expelled by the crown governments for their conflicting economic, political and ideological interests. The Catholic Dogma remains a formidable force in Latin America surpassing that of any other church and having a solidified control over the religious life of the populace. The history of the Catholic Church in Latin America dates back to the late 16th century as priests from various orders embarked on a mission to spread the word to the indigenous remote areas of the South American continent. The Jesuits had a late arrival compared to other orders but despite this, they have been recognized as having left an indelible mark and impression upon the natives more than any other religious group. The story of their settlement has been well chronicled and retold to generations after generations. Though their relationship would eventually sour leading to the hostile eviction and suppression of their dogma, the Jesuits were warmly welcomed by the Spanish and Portuguese colonial governments who positively viewed western religion as an apt tool for civilizing the natives and introducing western ways thus make them easily governable (Robert, 2008). Immense scholarly attention has been channeled to establish the major reasons behind the success of Jesuits in Latin America and the rationalization of their solid foothold despite being late entrants. While some literature may focus on the seemingly vast resources they wielded as enabling them to finance elaborate religious expeditions, many historians have come to the conclusion that the success lay in Jesuits willingness to blend Christianity with the existing pre-colonial culture. It has to be reiterated that the main motivation the colonial governments welcoming the missionaries was because they saw them as sugar coated baits to the Indians which would ensure their submissiveness to the colonial authority. To the colonists, these Reductions (mission settlements) would be appropriate tools for bringing the Indians together for the purpose of taxation and effective colonization. In Mexico, these settlements were referred to as conregacion while in Brazil they were called aldeias and were seen as appropriate instruments for the Europeanization of the Indians (Gary, 2010). The Jesuits first set foot in Paraguay, amongst the Tupi-Guarani peoples before extending their influence to areas such as Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina amongst others. The initial arrival of the Jesuits in Latin America was facilitated by the Spanish crown and the superiors in Rome as a joint effort to popularize Christianity as well as civilize the indigenous communities. It is the zeal with which they interacted with the natives and also with the Spanish colonial government that would determine their success. Their initial abodes were in the European dominated settlements. They found themselves at a disadvantage because other mission pioneers such as the Dominicans and the Franciscans had already mapped out and occupied the easily accessible territories and hence the Jesuits had to venture deep into the Aztec imperialism to reach the indigenous populations. Although eager to work with the native communities, prudence dictated that they had to commence their mission in the Spanish populated zones before venturing into the interiors. It is here hence that they set a solid foundation and initiated educational institutions that had a philosophical impact upon the immediate society as well as extending to the rest of the colony (Herman 1). One glaring impact that the Jesuits had in Latin America was the solidifying of the economic base of the locals. Scholarly interest has over the years been devoted to explore the extent of the Jesuits wealth and economic interests across South America and has revealed astronomical resources that led to the survival and the expansion of the Jesuit mission but ironically was also a source of conflict with the state and also the private secular haciendas. The Jesuit order was institutionalized in Rome in 1535 and unlike other orders was able to cultivate a cohesive structure away from the wrangles that characterized the state and church relations. Coupled with astute management of financial resources, the urban and rural properties that they owned, the Jesuits were able to expand the sphere of their mission deep into the interior (Enrique 1981). With such immense resources, the Jesuits were able to set up major development facilities as well as ensure the provision of social amenities such as health and education. As most have concurred, the Jesuits were administrative geniuses with their file and rank laden with individuals of various skills and competences. As Oreste (97) agrees, â€Å"under the religious habit of the order were hidden skilled technicians in the most distinct specialties: educators and psychologist; engineers and architects; metal workers and agriculturalist; artisans of many different trades; doctors and pharmacists; and even painters and sculptors. † Armed with such immense human resources, they left a decisive influence on the local communities. The schools they set up for the natives were unprecedented. Although there exists other universities set up by the Dominicans and the Franciscans, the Jesuit schools have been recognized for their powerful impact. An example of the famous universities they set up include san Ignacio de Loyola in Cordoba and Xaverian University in Bogota situated in Argentina and Colombia respectively. A notable contribution has been hailed as having been upon the Indian tribes spanning across both North and South America. By the time the Jesuits began their settlement in Latin America, the Indians were either gatherers or nomadic hunters. By the close of their 150 years of stay, the Indians had become a more organized and educated community with social and economic height equaling that of medieval western towns. Examples that have been greatly highlighted are the Guarani towns referred to as the Settlements of Paraguay. These settlements would later become urbanized being put under the charge of Jesuit priests aided by selected Indians. These settlements formed core units of the national economy creating a concentrated web of economic and social traffic. Each settlement was self autonomous complete with a church and artisan workshops. Education was a core concern and was a main preoccupation to the priests; it was a hence necessary that each town be equipped with a school and a library. Indians in the Jesuit settlements were able to accomplish a high level of economic, social and cultural development outdoing even the Spanish towns in the region. Undoubtedly, the Jesuits had a huge economic, social, religious and cultural impact in Latin America. Their prosperity and a strong sense of independence put them on a collision path with the Spanish and Portugal crowns and it was only a matter of time before they were expelled. Indeed in 1767, the Spanish king announced the banishment of all Jesuits from all the Spanish controlled areas. This would consequently lead to the taking over of all Jesuit possessions by the colonial government and the return to Europe of all Jesuits under arrest. The woes leading to the expulsion of the Jesuits can be traced to Europe where strong opposition began to arise coupled by a papal decree to dissolve the Jesuit mission or what was known as the Company of Jesus. A diagnosis of the conflict between the Jesuits and the Spanish crown reveals that it revolved around economic, ideological and political factors. There are those that have pointed out that the immense resources that the Jesuits accumulated and their seemingly prosperity was their undoing. As reiterated above, the Jesuits became a major economic class leading to the development of Jesuit haciendas. A wealthy class of Jesuits that owned huge tracts of plantations becoming influential figures in both social and political circles. This involvement in economic concerns in the long-term led to the development of conditions that deviated from the original intent of the Company of Jesus. Like the secular haciendas, the Jesuits began enjoying elite privileges and pursuing interests that put them at a crossroad with the crown administration. The Jesuits were also seen as undermining the crown by exploiting the special relations they enjoyed with the Indians they protected. There were claims that the Jesuits were treasonable and were engaged in secret plots against the crown. An example would be an uprising in Oporto referred to as the Taverners Revolt which was alleged to have been plotted by the Jesuits albeit never being proven. To the secular haciendas, the Jesuits economic prowess was a major threat to their livelihood. The Jesuits were accused of unfair trade practices and of grabbing the fertile lands at the expense of other enterprising Europeans. For instance they were accused of monopolizing the spice trade in the Amazon and of locking other interested traders using unfair practices. Herman, 1980) The wealth and the influence that the Jesuits wielded hence left them at a precarious situation creating a fear amongst other groups that their domination would lead to the disintegration of the Portuguese and the Spanish crowns paving way for the taking over the mantle by the Jesuits who by then were spread almost across the whole of South America. It was for these reasons that the pope issued a banning decree and the crown governments followed it up by expelling all the Jesuits, confiscating their properties and their huge plantations (Jeffrey, 2004) Indeed the history of the Jesuits in Latin America and their accomplishments remain exemplary. Touted as one of the most influential group of missionaries from Europe, the Jesuit settlement in its wake, and after close to 150 years, left a more advanced economy with advances in education that has continued to be recognized more than two centuries after the banishment of Jesuits. While the major reasons for their expulsion lay in the numerous political, economic and ideological conflicts with the secular haciendas, the crown and the authorities in Rome, their exit left a major blow to south America that would take years to mend.

Looking At The Relationships Between Clients Social Work Essay Example

Looking At The Relationships Between Clients Social Work Essay Example Looking At The Relationships Between Clients Social Work Essay Looking At The Relationships Between Clients Social Work Essay The client came to confer with the declining father-son relationship and her boies behavioural jobs. She perceived it as a consequence of witnessing bridal force that she had been enduring for several months. She said her hubby had a bad pique, demoing no attention or regard to her and he frequently beat her in forepart of the kids after rummy. She remained tolerate and silent until the battery shifted to life endangering danger late. Harmonizing to what Mrs. Chan has said and worker s observation, there are three chief jobs in the household as listed below. Mrs. Chan has been enduring from her hubby s choleric pique and violent Acts of the Apostless over a long clip. The domestic force caused dangerous injuries to the client both physically and mentally. Empirical grounds shows that after physical maltreatment, the effects of psychological maltreatment can be even more detrimental. Women subsisters of domestic force have greater possibility to demo Post Traumatic Stress Disorder symptoms, along with dissociation, depression, anxiousness and terror, with lowered self-esteem and self-efficacy, and low quality of life. The Son s behavioural job The two kids have been exposed to their male parent s opprobrious behaviour to their female parent. Witnessing a violent event, peculiarly one affecting parents, is likely to ensue in kids s serious accommodation and behavioural jobs. Witnessing is a stressor comparable in impact to the direct experience of a violent act. The symptom becomes stronger when the force is 1 ) long permanent, 2 ) human designed,3 ) in which the attacker and victim are close to them. Child are likely to bring forth PTSD reactions such as backdown, aggression and trouble in concentration after exposure to force. Thus school public presentation of the boy deteriorated and his pique worsened. He went so far as to conceal some arms to assail his male parent in instance to protect Mrs. Chan. Family Relationss Family is a particular societal system which performs certain maps and certain duties. It performs the indispensable map of go toing to the societal and educational demands, wellness and wellbeing, and common attention of its members. The Chan s household is in a dysfunctional position. Missing communications in both spousal and parental relationships leads to blockings in giving attentions, meeting demands, establishing maps and executing duties. Mr. Chan is busy on concern every twenty-four hours and the whole household rarely have activities together. A nerve-racking household environment under force restrains looks of feelings. Besides, kids who witnessed domestic force ever face a job of trueness. Choosing either side to back up will convey jobs in household dealingss necessarily. These three jobs are non separated from each other. Alternatively, they are someway in causal relationships. Spousal force caused kids s behavioural jobs and hapless household interactions, so in the intercession procedure, we have to turn to the jobs one by one harmonizing to this order. Intervention stage In order to acquire the household back to operation, we devised an intercession program for the above-named jobs based on informed consent to the client and ethic codifications of societal worker. Aims Short-run aims: To maintain the safety of Mrs. Chan and her kids To measure and to retrieve the injury of Mrs. Chan and her kids To quash Mr. Chan s aggressive behaviour and excite his motivation to alter Long-run aims To forestall any physical and mental maltreatment in the household To better parenting accomplishments To reconstruct the communicating and to advance harmonious and healthy relationship in the household Scheme and principles PTSD Assessment The Keane MMPI ( MMPI2 ) -PTSD Scale As Mrs. Chan has been enduring from intimate spouse force for several months, the effects of the maltreatment on her should be detected by scientific methods. The Keane MMPI PTSD Scale has proven to be a dependable and valid step of PTSD in beat-up adult females. If any symptoms are discovered, the worker would mention Mrs. Chan to professional healer for farther intervention. Fiscal Assistance and Group preparation Due to economic independency and isolation, the victim has really small money of her ain and few people on whom she can trust when seeking aid, so the worker would help Mrs. Chan to use for some fiscal aid like CSSA. In add-on, she lacks specialised accomplishments, instruction, assurance, self-esteem, self-efficacy. Not anticipating any agencies of supports could worsen her sense of hopelessness, weakness and hence depression. Therefore, preparations are necessary to assist her discovery paid employment to back up herself every bit good as her kids. Group developing like horticulture, handcrafting, cooking etc. can non merely equip her with some basic professional accomplishments but besides provide her with more interpersonal web and societal support. Additions in self-pride are due to the chances for societal interaction, creativeness and self-expression ( Parker, 2004 ) . Solution-focused intervention There are a batch of theories to explicate why persons get violent behaviours in intimate relationships. The societal acquisition theory suggests that the wrongdoers learn by sing or witnessing force and intergenerational transmittal of force exists in domestic force. Others focused on abnormal psychology and personality features. Biological and physiological factors can besides assist to bring forth force. Substance maltreatment such as intoxicant and drug ingestion may besides account the state of affairs in some manner. However, every bit far as we know at the minute, we can non state the ground why Mr. Chan beats his married woman. The lone thing we are certain for the minute is that Mr. Chan should do a alteration to halt the opprobrious Acts of the Apostless and reconstruct the household operation. The solution-focused intervention deemphasizes jobs and emphasizes the building of solutions. Rather than inquiring the wrongdoer to be responsible for the job, the intervention requests the wrongdoer to be accountable for solutions. The twosome have been married for 20 old ages and Mr. Chan has ever been difficult working on concern to back up the household. Out of this love, plus the worker s stimulation and counsel, Mr. Chan is expected to determine motivations, set meaningful ends to extinguish force and develop new behaviour to work out the jobs step by measure. Assessment interview, single, twosome and household solution-talks and offender group developing workshops will be carried out with the furthering of the intercession. Harmonizing to the self-changing procedure theory, there are five phases in the procedure of an person s alteration pre-contemplation, contemplation, finding, action and care, while backsliding is likely to happen at all phases. Therefore, the procedure would take a long clip and it needs worker s forbearance and encouragement wholly along. Art therapy In the Chan s instance, the boy has likely shown some mild symptoms of PTSD. Without intercession, it will take to impossible effects. The miss s status should besides be followed up although there is still no obvious symptom on her. Sing the age of the two kids, the worker would follow art therapy in the intercession. Children shows greater decrease in PTSD symptoms through originative look such as drawing, picture, drama, or storytelling. We plan to utilize this attack to help kids to place and alter destructive belief forms, identify and express emotional residue, exercise personal control, make programs for future and interrupt down the sense of isolation. Family Gathering Interactions and communications are indispensable to household operation. The worker suggests Mr. and Mrs. Chan form more household activities that can affect the whole household to advance the household relationship. Harmonizing to parent-child interaction therapy, such activities can modify manners between the parent and kid, diminish kid behaviour jobs and advance positive parenting. Furthermore, household assemblages can give Mr. Chan a opportunity to cognize how his married woman takes attention of the kids every twenty-four hours, which can advance love and esteem between the twosome. It is hoped that these activities can be held at least one time per hebdomad.

How to Write a Personal Essay on Favorite Food

How to Write a Personal Essay on Favorite Food Personal essays are ways to offer the reader a glimpse into you and your views. Of course, it still needs a purpose. When writing a personal essay you need to have a certain goal in mind and in order to reach that goal you need to show the reader your views, observations, or experiences. 1. Identify the Purpose In this case, the personal essay is meant not just to entertain your audience but to inform them about your favorite foods. Write out an outline of what items you want to cover in order to achieve your purpose and your thesis statement (in case you don’t know which topic to choose, check out the prepared ones on favorite food). 2. Craft a Topic Sentence for Each Body Paragraph This topic sentence should be a single sentence, much like the thesis, which tells the reader what they will expect to read in the following paragraph (we have prepared for these interesting facts on favorite food that can serve you as the theme for a topic sentence). The goal here is to use keywords found in the original thesis statement and integrate them into the topic sentences such that each topic sentence clearly relates back to your thesis. At the end of each paragraph in your essay you need what is called a transitional sentence. This sentence functions like a bridge, transitioning the reader from the content in one paragraph to the next. Without these transitional sentences, moving between different topics or ideas can seem jagged and choppy. 3. Start Writing the Body Look over your outline and begin one paragraph at a time. When writing out the content of your essay, many students prefer to start with the body. This is often the easiest part to write and because the introduction and conclusion rely so heavily on the information you are presenting in the body, it is best to wait until the body is complete. This will help you avoid wasting time going back and changing the introduction and conclusion as you change around the structure of the body. 4. Write out Your Introduction This is where you place your thesis statement and where you introduce to the reader the different sections you are going to cover within the body of the paper. 5. Make a Conclusion This should be laid out similarly to the introduction in terms of structure. It should restate your thesis and should summarize for the reader what content you presented to them in the body of your paper. It should not simply regurgitate the same sentences as your introduction but instead expound upon them with the additional evidence you included in the body. The conclusion should also be free from new material; never introduce something new in the conclusion that you did not cover in the body. Many students make this mistake because they find interesting facts or ideas which could not be included in the body of their paper because it was not fully fleshed out or perhaps did not fit with the flow. So the students smash it into the conclusion because they desperately want it to be read. If you have something like this, find a way to flesh it out with better evidence, or to write a better transition so it works within the body of your content but never introduce it at the end of your work.

The Kostenki Archaeological Sites

The Kostenki Archaeological Sites Kostenki refers to a complex of open-air archaeological sites located in the Pokrovsky Valley of Russia, on the west bank of the Don River, about 400 kilometers (250 miles) south of Moscow and 40 km (25 mi) south of the city of Voronezh, Russia. Together, they contain important evidence concerning the timing and complexity of the various waves of anatomically modern humans as they left Africa some 100,000 or more years ago The main site (Kostenki 14, see page 2) is located near the mouth of a small steep ravine; the upper reaches of this ravine contain evidence of a handful of other Upper Paleolithic occupations. The Kostenki sites lie deeply buried (between 10-20 meters [30-60 feet]) beneath the modern surface. The sites were buried by alluvium which was deposited by the Don River and its tributaries beginning at least 50,000 years ago. Terrace Stratigraphy The occupations at Kostenki include several Late Early Upper Paleolithic levels, dated between 42,000 to 30,000 calibrated years ago (cal BP). Smack dab in the middle of those levels is a layer of volcanic ash, associated with the volcanic eruptions of the Phlegrean Fields of Italy (aka Campanian Ignimbrite or CI Tephra), which erupted about 39,300 cal BP. The stratigraphic sequence at the Kostenki sites are broadly described as containing six main units: Modern levels at the top: black, highly humic soil with abundant bioturbation, churning by living animals, in this case mainly burrowing by rodents.Cover Loam: loess-like deposit with several stacked occupations dated to the Eastern Gravettian (such as Kostenki 1 at 29,000 cal BP; and Epi-Gravettian (Kostenki 11, 14,000-19,000 cal BP)Upper Humic Complex/Bed (UHB): yellowish chalky loam with several stacked occupations, early and mid-Upper Paleolithic, including Initial Upper Paleolithic, Aurignacian, Gravettian and local GorodsovianWhitish Loam: homogenous loam with some sub-horizontal lamination and in the lower part in situ or reworked volcanic ash (CI Tephra, independently dated 39,300 years agoLower Humic Complex/Bed (LHB): stratified loamy deposits with several stacked horizons, early and mid-Upper Paleolithic, including Initial Upper Paleolithic, Aurignacian, Gravettian and local Gorodsovian (similar to UHB)Chalky Loam: upper alluvium stratified with coarse deposits Controversy: Late Early Upper Paleolithic at Kostenki In 2007, the excavators at Kostenki (Anikovich et al.) reported that they had identified occupation levels within and below the ash level. They found the remnants of the Early Upper Paleolithic culture called the Aurignacian Dufour, numerous small bladelets quite similar to lithic tools found in similarly dated sites in western Europe. Prior to Kostenki, the Aurignacian sequence was considered the oldest component associated with modern humans at archaeological sites in Europe, underlain by Mousterian-like deposits representing Neanderthals. At Kostenki, a sophisticated tool kit of prismatic blades, burins, bone antler, and ivory artifacts, and small perforated shell ornaments lies below the CI Tephra and Aurignacian Dufour assemblage: these were identified as an earlier presence of modern humans in Eurasia than previously recognized. The discovery of modern human cultural material below the tephra was quite controversial at the time it was reported, and a debate about the context and date of the tephra arose. That debate was a complex one, best addressed elsewhere. Read more about the Pre-Aurignacian deposits at Kostenki Comments from John Hoffecker concerning initial criticism of the age of the site Since 2007, additional sites such as Byzovaya and Mamontovaya Kurya have lent additional support to the presence of early modern human occupations of the eastern Plains of Russia. Kostenki 14, also known as Markina Gora, is the main site at Kostenki, and it has been found to contain genetic evidence concerning the migration of early modern humans from Africa into Eurasia. Markina Gora is located on the flank of a ravine cut into one of the river terraces. The site covers hundred of meters of sediment within seven cultural levels. Cultural Layer (CL) I, in the Cover Loam, 26,500-27,600 cal BP, Kostenki-Avdeevo cultureCL II, within the Upper Humic Bed (UHB), 31,500-33,600 cal BP, Gorodsovian, mid Upper Paleolithic mammoth bone industryCL III, UHB, 33,200-35,300 cal BP, blade-based and bone industry, Gorodsovian, Mid Upper PaleolithicLVA (layer in volcanic ash, 39,300 cal BP), small assemblage, unipolar blades and Dufour bladelets, AurignacianCL IV in the Lower Humic Bed (LHB), older than the tephra, undiagnostic blade-dominated industryCL IVa, LHB, 36,000-39,100, a few lithics, large numbers of horse bones (at least 50 individual animals)Fossil Soil, LHB, 37,500-40,800 cal BPCL IVb, LHB, 39,900-42,200 cal BP, distinctive Upper Paleolithic, endscrapers, possible horse head out of carved mammoth ivory, human tooth (EMH) A complete early modern human skeleton was recovered from Kostenki 14 in 1954, buried in a tightly flexed position in a oval burial pit (99x39 centimeters or 39x15 inches) which had been dug through the ash layer and then was sealed by Cultural Layer III. The skeleton was direct-dated to 36,262-38,684 cal BP. The skeleton represents an adult man, 20-25 years old with a robust skull and short stature (1.6 meters [5 foot 3 inches]). A few stone flakes, animal bones and a sprinkle of dark red pigment were found in the burial pit. Based on its location within the strata, the skeleton can be generally dated to the Early Upper Paleolithic period. Genomic Sequence from Markina Gora Skeleton In 2014, Eske Willerslev and associates (Seguin-Orlando et al) reported the genomic structure of the skeleton at Markina Gora. They perfomed 12 DNA extractions from the skeletons left arm bone, and compared the sequence to the growing numbers of ancient and modern DNA. They identified genetic relationships between Kostenki 14 and Neanderthalsmore evidence that early modern humans and Neanderthals interbredas well as genetic connections to the Malta individual from Siberia and European Neolithic farmers. Further, they found a fairly distant relationship to Australo-Melanesian or eastern Asian populations. The Markina Gora skeletons DNA indicates a deep-aged human migration out of Africa separate from that of Asian populations, supporting the Southern Dispersal Route as a possible corridor for population of those areas. All humans are derived from the same populations in Africa; but we colonized the world in different waves and perhaps along different exit routes. The genomic data recovered from Markina Gora is further evidence that the population of our world by humans was very complex, and we have a long way to go before we understand it. Excavations at Kostenki Kostenki was discovered in 1879; and a long series of excavations have followed. Kostenki 14 was discovered by P.P. Efimenko in 1928 and has been excavated since the 1950s via a series of trenches. The oldest occupations at the site were reported in 2007, where the combination of great age and sophistication created quite a stir. Sources This glossary entry is a part of the About.com guide to Upper Paleolithic , and the Dictionary of Archaeology. Anikovich MV, Sinitsyn AA, Hoffecker JF, Holliday VT, Popov VV, Lisitsyn SN, Forman SL, Levkovskaya GM, Pospelova GA, Kuzmina IE et al. 2007. Early Upper Paleolithic in Eastern Europe and Implications for the Dispersal of Modern Humans. Science 315(5809):223-226. Hoffecker JF. 2011. The early upper Paleolithic of eastern Europe reconsidered. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews 20(1):24-39. Revedin A, Aranguren B, Becattini R, Longo L, Marconi E, Mariotti Lippi M, Skakun N, Sinitsyn A, Spiridonova E, and Svoboda J. 2010. Thirty thousand-year-old evidence of plant food processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107(44):18815-18819. Seguin-Orlando A, Korneliussen TS, Sikora M, Malaspinas A-S, Manica A, Moltke I, Albrechtsen A, Ko A, Margaryan A, Moiseyev V et al. 2014. Genomic structure in Europeans dating back at least 36,200 years. ScienceExpress 6 November 2014(6 November 2014) doi: 10.1126/science.aaa0114. Soffer O, Adovasio JM, Illingworth JS, Amirkhanov H, Praslov ND, and Street M. 2000. Palaeolithic perishables made permanent. Antiquity 74:812-821. Svendsen JI, Heggen HP, Hufthammer AK, Mangerud J, Pavlov P, and Roebroeks W. 2010. Geo-archaeological investigations of Palaeolithic sites along the Ural Mountains - On the northern presence of humans during the last Ice Age. Quaternary Science Reviews 29(23-24):3138-3156. Svoboda JA. 2007. The Gravettian on the Middle Danube. Paleobiology 19:203-220. Velichko AA, Pisareva VV, Sedov SN, Sinitsyn AA, and Timireva SN. 2009. Paleogeography of Kostenki-14 (Markina Gora). Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 37(4):35-50. doi: 10.1016/j.aeae.2010.02.002

In general, do you think the end of the shuttle program will have a Case Study

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Critical analysis of I heard a fly buzz; Wounded deer; and From cocoon forth a butterfly by Emily Dickinson - Research Paper Example Her concern with these problems and the expressions of her judgement that she has made in her own highly individualistic idiom has probably led to the classification of much of her poetry as mystical. (Humiliata, 144) The work and life of Emily Dickinson became known to the world after her death. She led a secluded life and her work is shaped by her individualistic thinking. She mostly concerns herself with themes of: life, death, material and immaterial things, particularly in ‘I heard a Fly buzz’; ‘Wounded deer’; and ‘From cocoon forth a butterfly’. The running them in ‘I heard a fly buzz’ is death and the momentous experience during the final breaths of life. It is an experience of dying and feeling the last remnants of life. Life is associated with the buzzing sound of a fly- a minute living object. Though everything is still around her; yet it feels as if she is surrounded by a storm. The buzzing sound of the fly is contrasted with â€Å"heaves of storm† (4). Dickinson employs contrast to enhance the various themes in her poetry. The fly is moving while everything else in the room is still. She doesn’t personify the persons present around her deathbed but focuses on their emotions of grief. She does so purposefully so she could heighten the effect of the revelation of the king in power. ‘King’ could be anything- Christian God, or Death.... Even if life is trivial with respect to death or transcendental- it doesn’t let go that easily. The poet can feel life till the last moment. In the last stanza, she symbolizes light as life and darkness as death and the transcendence from light to darkness is gradual and painless. The poet is preoccupied with themes of life and death in this poem. â€Å"Death was important to Emily Dickenson. Out of some one thousand and seven hundred poems, perhaps some ‘five to six hundred’ are concerned with the theme of death...† (Nesteruk, 25-43) The first line of the poem startles the reader: ‘I heard a fly buzz when I died;† (1) because this statement apparently doesn’t make sense (no one can feel anything once dead). But the idea behind this is to elucidate the strong connection of life that a person experiences till the last moment. This poem is about feeling that moment where life and death intercede. Death is associated with power, stillness, a nd darkness. Sound and pictorial imagery is handled very delicately in this poem. The phrase ‘see to see’ is also the culmination of the poem’s complex sound play. It echoes the repetition of ‘stillness’ in stanza 1, and it is the last of the series of sibilants, or hissing sounds (s, sh, z) that run through the poem, building up to the Fly’s ‘buzz’... ... While there are those who see fly as a statement of nihilism that ridicules the notion that death is transcendence, others see the image as more ambiguous. For all its mindless uncertainty, the fly is a symbol of blind, persistent life, and as such, worth clinging to until the very final instant of consciousness. (Leiter, 104) ‘A wounded deer’ is a narrative of a hunter that explains to the poet how a wounded deer behaves when

Business Plan to create a Maintenance Training in Jakarta Research Paper

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Freakonomics Podcast Death by Fire Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Business Plan to create a Maintenance Training in Jakarta Research Paper

Business Plan to create a Maintenance Training in Jakarta - Research Paper Example This document provides an analysis of the market, demand condition and other relevant factors. The plan proposes solutions on how to recruit local staff and potential talent to enter the aviation industry. The scope of the report include corporate strategy, finance, marketing, and human resources. The report includes a feasibility study that examines the relevant risks and other dominant factors and matters which are relevant concerns prior to the commitment of resources into the project. The recipients of this report are the stakeholders that include the government of Indonesia and other players who are going to play various roles. This includes sponsors, institution management and other people at the helm of affairs in the training center. The primary focus of the research will be on the maintenance of investments and comparative analysis with other flight training services. The report invokes some elements of mandatory Full Flight Simulators (FFS) and the use of flight instruction s that will be seconded by ETOPS organization which is headquartered in Toulouse, France. The research concludes that it will be better to maintain infrastructure for Asian Aviation Academy in Asia but retain staff members in France and sending instructors to the Asian unit where necessary. This is because it will be expensive to maintain full-time paid staff members in the Asian unit. Also, it is strongly recommended that Asian Aviation Academy must use local resources to reduce costs and retain attractive offers to consumers in order to gain and maintain market share in contrast with other competitors in the industry. It is recommended that Asian Aviation Academy must commence with the Airbus. To this end, the focus of the business plan is on Airbus. As the company grows and the institution gets rooted in the region, the portfolio could be expanded to train other players like Bombardier, Emirates, ATR and other entities. The market analysis is conducted on the basis of this assump tion. CHAPTER 1 GENERAL CONTEXT This proposal focuses on training staff members in some aspects of the Airbus aircrafts and its relevant aviation management job training. In order to examine it, there is the need to undertake a critical review of the scope of work and the technical components of the Airbus family of aircrafts and devices. The primary focus of the Asian Aviation Academy (hereafter referred to as AAA) will be on the A320 which is the smallest and the most popular airline in the range. To this end, AAA will be positioned to train staff members with the management and running of the A320 aircraft and provide all the basic services in this aircraft. The basic services will provide a model for the integration of other airlines in the range and help to promote an efficient training system and structure. 1.1 Market Analysis In the macrocosmic sense, the aviation industry experienced a major boom after 1980 (Sinha 31). This is because deregulation and other liberalization ar rangements ensured that the number of airlines could be increased in nations. Also, the previous tradition of only allowing governments to own airlines was eliminated with the introduction of reforms and deregulation which allowed private participation in the global airline industry. Asia and the

Growth and Development through the Upheaval of the Late Middle Ages Essay

Growth and Development through the Upheaval of the Late Middle Ages - Essay Example This was only one of many devastating events that occurred in this time period and another critical event was the Hundred Years War (Kagan, Ozment and Turner 257). Both of these events caused substantial deaths within the population and may have made it seem like there was no hope. Despite this, the upheaval of the late Middle Ages did have some positive aspects, and overall created a positive outcome for the remaining population. The turbulence of the period resulted in a significant depopulation, easing the tension on citizens, decreasing rents and leading to the revitalization of cities. The population of Europe had developed extensively prior to the bulbonic plague resulting in a larger demand for food than could be produced. There were also not enough jobs, resulting in many people being unable to feed themselves or their families (Kagan, Ozment and Turner 258). The plague resulted in many deaths, which led to a significantly decreased labor supply. A smaller population decrease d the demand for food and land, resulting in a decrease in rents throughout Europe. The changes in demand led to increased interest in expensive products produced through skilled industry. This resulted in a considerable development of skill in this time, and many people turned away from manual labor to be involved in skilled labor instead (Kagan, Ozment and Turner 258). Overall, the led to the population as a whole becoming more skilled, and to a greater desire for learning and the development of skills. Although both sides took heavy losses during the Hundred Year War, the war served to help develop a sense of destiny and national identity for the country and influenced the transition to a centralized state. The French had superior forces during the war. However, the English had superior firepower and a sense of national pride (Kagan, Ozment and Turner 265). Towards the end of the war, Joan of Arc became an important national figure for the French, leading to the liberation of Orl eans from the English. Her victories were strongly due to the sense of hope and nationalism that Joan’s presence installed in the French people. Despite the devastation that the war brought to France, it led to the development of a strong sense of nationalism. This nationalism did not end once the war had finished, and it sped the movement of France away from a monarchy and towards a centralized state (Kagan, Ozment and Turner 266-267). A final aspect of the late Middle Ages that was positive was education, arts and humanism. All of these components have become an important part of our society today, yet they evolved within this time of death and despair. By the time the 15th century had ended, the deaths which had occurred earlier in the century were beginning to be made up for in births. The population was beginning to recover from the period of death and disease and there were substantial changes in the dynamics of the country. From 1300 to 1500 education had dramatically increased in accessibility, with fifty new universities being built in this period, as well as a large amount of residential colleges. Humanism and the printing press were also developed shortly after this period, undoubtedly as the result of advances seen within the late Middle Ages (Kagan, Ozment and Turner 279). These advances helped to pave the way for later developments throughout Europe, and played an essential role in the revitalization of Europe. For the people living within the late Middle Ages, the time was no doubt seen as one of death and despair, where there was little hope that the world would ever return to a good place. However, despite the number of deaths and the turbulence that surrounded this time period, the

Group Communications Essay Example for Free

Group Communications Essay Three videos of different group and team interaction will be reviewed for this paper. After they have been viewed they will be discussed on matters of the relationship between group members, member diversity and communication style. The first case study to be reviewed is: Helping Annie. In this video a school nurse has called a meeting with a psychiatrist and a social worker to discuss the case of a High school student, Annie, who possibly suffers from depression and an eating disorder. Right off the bat the school nurse is interrupted by the psychiatrist before she can finish giving the background information on Annie. He wants facts immediately not impressions. He makes a quick decision as to her problem and her treatment within minutes of their meeting and seems to believe that they are done, no more needs to be said. The Social worker does not agree with his decision and offers a counter solution but is again interrupted by the psychiatrist. The psychiatrist wants to use medication and the Social workers wants to first talk to Annie and see if they can understand what the teenager is going through. The psychiatrist sees this as a total waste of time. There does not seem to be any real facilitator of these meeting, and no one points out the psychiatrists constant interruptions of the social worker but the social worker herself. The school nurse is totally intimidated into silence by both of their behaviors. The psychologist seems to have the communication traits of what the test calls thinkers, and the Social worker has the traits of a feeler. According to the text, Thinks are task-oriented. They take pride in their ability to think objectively and logically, regardless of if those thoughts are correct. (Reeve, 2007, Ch. 3, pg.69, para.2) Feelers are people-oriented. The psychologist is very direct and analytical. He seems to want to remove any feelings or humanity from Annies case while the social worker is taking a more subjective, humane approach to Annies problems and is obviously more concerned with the girls well-being than a quick fix. The diversity that exists in this group is both gender and class. The group consist of two women and one older man, the older man, the psychiatrist,  seems to believe that the social worker and school nurse are not in the same class as he, his age, experience and profession making him superior to them on all levels, therefore, their opinions are not worth considering. This diversity is a hindrance in their communication because the psychologist is not listening to the two women and continues to interrupt them because he doesnt have much time here. If using a high context perspective the viewer could draw the conclusion that the psychologist does not agree with the social worker by watching his nonverbal behavior such as his gestures and facial expressions. In a high-context culture little meaning is expressed through words. Meaning can be conveyed through status such as age, gender, education or title. (Reeve, 2007) One method that could have been used to improve communications would have been to have a facilitator present to ensure that each party had the same amount of time to express his or her opinions. Another improvement would have been a change of setting from the informal setting to a more professional seating arrangement that may have helped foster communication between all parties present, such as a round table or face to face seating. The second video reviewed is: Planning the Playground. The group consists of three males and two females; three Caucasians and two minorities. The video case opens with two new members, one a younger male, Ray and one older woman, Betty, meeting the team for the first time. There seems to be two slightly awkward moments when Ray first only offers to shake the hands of the men at the table and when he has trouble pronouncing the name of the minority female Iesha. The moment was defused quickly when Iesha decided to make a small joke about her name to ease the tension and held out her own hand in greeting. Betty seemed uncertain about speaking and said she only joined the team to make friends. Communications between the team started out stiff and slow but by using team talk, (the nature of the language that group members use as they work together. Not only does team talk enable group members to share information and express opinions, but analysis of team talk also reveals where the team is coming from and where the team is headed.) (Reeve, 2007, Ch. 5 pg. 124, Para. 2), team leader David kept the discussion flowing and moved it to the reason they were there. The role the diversity of the group played in their communication was the different  experiences each had to bring to the discussion. Iesha obviously liked research and set numbers and offered not only a sound dollar amount to strive for but reasoning behind it. Ray countered that he thinks the amount should be higher but offered no real reason as did Phil who wanted the amount lower. After deciding to compromise they moved to fundraising. The immediate response to Bettys suggestion of having a Bake sale was obvious. They did not take her input seriously at all but again the team leader chimed in before their dismissive attitude could be considered rude and insulting. Di versity was also not a strong hindrance to the group even though the potential was there. Conflict management techniques were used by the group by expressing interest in solving the problem and keeping their tone and language non-threatening, using phrases like well, yes but lets look at it from a different angle or thats a good idea but may not be exactly what we need now.The use of team speak was a very effective communication tool that kept the team focused and on track. Another important tool that was used was nonverbal. The seating arrangement at the table permitted members to have their personal space but still be able to have direct eye contact. According to Reeve, each persons choice of seating position in groups has a direct effect on interaction and influence. A number of studies have demonstrated that group members prefercorner-to-corner or side-by-side seating for cooperative activities. Such an arrangement allows them to be close enough to share materials. (Reeve, 2007, CH. 5 pg. 138, Para 1) The team in this case study did show good communication skills on t he whole but the one improvement would have been to ensure that before the meeting took place, that each member understood what the reason for the meeting was. The last video reviewed is Virtual Communication. This video is a presentation of three people meeting as a team via conference call. The third unseen member is not listening to what is being said by the manager or his coworker. This is obvious because when they ask him a question he pauses or stutters, then repeats something that neither of the other participants actually said. Listening is important in any group so that you can be sure to get all the available information as well as know exactly what is  expected of you. This is even more so in the virtual business work when team members are not actually sitting face to face. Charlie is neither listening to what is being said or to the messages that were contained in Ellens email or voice mails to him. According to the text, Effective listening in virtual groups requires adapting to a different medium of expression Your only adaptation is making sure that your microphone is on or off at appropriate times. In an email discussion, however, you can neither see nor hear participants, but you still must listen to their messages. (Reeve, 2007, Ch.6, Pg,.168)The disadvantage of group meetings using a virtual medium is that you can fake listening by answering I agree or a non-committal sound. You can also pretend you didnt hear something that you dont want to address as Ellen does in this video when Charlie tries to place the blame on her. Charlie did not effectively use any of his listening skills while on this call. It was apparent by his distracted non-answers that he was not listening. The entire fault is not necessarily Charlies; it is not known if he ever fully understood what was expected of him from the first meeting. If he had at any time used one listening skill such as paraphrasing he might have had enough clarification to get his assignment done in time. Paraphrasing is a form of feedback that one lets the speaker know you are listening and gives them the opportunity to clarify their statement. Paraphrasing can be used for multiple purposes such as: To ensure comprehension before evaluation; to reassure others that you want to understand them; to clear up confusion and ask for clarification; and to help others reach their own conclusions. (Reeve, 2007) References Engleberg, I. Wynn,D. 2007. Working in Groups: Communication Principles and Strategies (4th ed.) Allyn Bacon Publishers. The Collaboration Tool Box. 2002-2003. MIT. Online resource. Retreived online January 12, 2009 from http://web.mit.e

Millennial Generation

Millennial Generation Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Overview The current world that we live now is being strongly influenced by the high technology waves. This kind of waves are altering our operations in business sectors like finance, economic, accounting and as well as insurance. Internet and its connectivity are increasingly important as the role of connecting people all over the world in the most cheapest and efficiency way. It is now become a necessary in all the peoples lives. According to the research, there are around 9.3 million people in Malaysia age 15 and above using internet at home or work locations, each of them consuming average of 1,066 pages of content and spending 14 hours online in June, 2009 (Comscore,2009). Internet is a new distribution channel for businesses to market and promote their products and services in order to increase their revenues, profitability and customers loyalty. For successfully enter and adapt in the new evolution of technology and electronic, businesses had change their operation structures into tec hnology-intensive based. Some businesses from shops to financial institutions even changed most of their products and services into E-based products or services. Generation Y also can be known as â€Å"Millennial Generation†. From its name, it obviously stated that this generation closely related to high technology and digital electronics. This generation mostly owned computer and have higher education. They frequently used high-technology products and services and they willing to be the innovator for using new E-product. Generation Y is an influential factor towards the future development in E-based services and products. Therefore, most businesses will focus their customer target on generation Y in the coming years. We are now entering into new phase of technology and electronics. With trimness of electronics technology many electronic tools and gadgets have become increasingly personal and portable. It makes people can surf net whenever and wherever they are. The conveniences of communication and networking have stimulated the growth of E-commerce. E-commerce can be translated as any form of businesses that using information technology for transaction. In order to stay ahead in millennium age, most of the companies used E-commerce regardless of business to business (B2B) or business to customer (B2C) or even customer to customer (C2C) (Ahonen, 2004). Services sector like banking also promote internet banking or online banking to facilitate their efficiency in the banking transaction. Online banking can reduce some unnecessarily procedures and provides convenience to customers. Yet insurance industry has been lagging behind others services industries in adapting new technology era. In addition, there are many researches done for investigating the factors that affect adoption of internet among different sectors in Malaysia (Stevens, 2002; Soliman, 2003; Wirtz, 2001; Coltman, 2001), but empirical data for e-insurance was limited due to insurance industry has been slow respond to e-commerce compared to other financial services (Esters, 1997). Insurance institutions have the direct competition with banking and financial institutions. It is the great time for insurance companies to utilize the convenience of communications and networking in establishing direct interface with customers. E-insurance is broadly defined as distribution of insurance services through information technology. The direct channel can eliminates the intermediaries, provides more efficiency, lower cost and more value added to the customers. Other than online purchases, E-insurance can offer varied types of services like online payments, register claims, review claims and renew insurance policy. Besides that, e-insurance also can reduce the level of management hierarchy and internal administration cost by automating all the business processes. There are some limitations of the regulatory for fully applied the e-commerce in certain countries. However, the insurance legislation world wide has been continuously updated and modified to fulfil e-insurance m etrics (Ahonen, 2007). This study examines the perception and expectation of generation Y towards E-insurance. It discusses about the existing e-commerce applied in insurance industry and the expectation of generation Y on the improvement in E-insurance in the future. The new high technology and electronic era started, it links the generation Y and the insurance industry together. It is important to examine the relationship between generation Y and E-insurance. Generation Y act as knowledgeable customers, they are pursuing simple, convenient, fast and efficiency services at lower prices. Therefore, it is the need for insurance companies to introduce E-insurance that satisfied the customers need. 1.2 Statement of problem E-commerce had widespread all over the various business from education to real estate sector. It will continue to grow up unabatedly because information is now the lifeblood of successful business. The importance of e-commerce can be seen from the Ninth Malaysian Plan (2006-2010); Malaysian Government has allocated RM 12.9 billion for developing e-commerce. According to the survey conducted by Nielsen Company (2007), there are 70% of internet users in Malaysia purchased online at some point in past. So there are many potential opportunities in e-commerce nowadays. Internet and electronic communication enables companies exchange or transfer their information to the other part of the worlds without boundaries. E-commerce also provides a new distribution channel for businesses to deliver their products or services to customers more efficiency and fast. Meanwhile, companies can connect their customers worldwide in real time. It can establish long term relationship with their customers. Since there are many advantages in adopting e-commerce, yet, not all businesses can successfully fully applied e-commerce especially insurance industry. Insurance industry has been lagging behind in the adoption of e-commerce. There are some barriers on adoption of e-commerce in insurance industry. All the business sectors included financial services sectors have been revolved to new e-commerce era because of the domino effect of globalization and liberalization around the world since 1990s (Piercy, 1999). New entrants of e-retailers of financial services sectors lead to intense competition among financial services providers. There is a need to improve service quality of their service in order to survive in the global market place. Yet, consumers are less likely to purchase online than expected in despite of the huge investments in online banking (Sarel Marmorstein, 2003; Wang, 2003). Better understanding of factors that affect customers acceptance on using internet banking is prerequisite of obtaining success in conducting e-commerce. However, lack of research on perception of consumers toward e-insurance in Malaysia. Another important issue is consumers feel unreliable towards security and privacy of e-commerce website (Jà ¤rvinen, 2001). Insurance policy requires exchanges of huge amounts information between the parties. Electronic exchange data or information that needed in insurance policy is an ideal way because Internet enables transfer data over worldwide. Yet the only concern is the private confidential of the data when it is being transfer through internet or any other electronic method. Because of the anonymous nature in internet, insured unable to ensure the data is transferred to the right person. In electronic environment, there is no guarantee of the data or information that being transferred is sealed and did not review by others. In addition, electronic exchange data can cause security problems like customer database may be hacked by someone who has negative intention. Furthermore, electronic documents without physical signatures are easily being pirated. According to Forrester r esearch 2001, the main reason (59%) of young consumers not purchase online is concern about the use of credit cards online and the second reason (47%) is concern about the privacy of the data they sent out to website. Besides, about 75% of US consumers of the Boston Consulting Groups survey are concerned about the degree of security and privacy provided in electronic environment (Goldman, 2001). There is a need for insurance companies to solve this problem by review other banks in gaining consumers trust towards online services (Mattila, 2003). In Malaysia, government had encouraged the development of E-insurance since January 2005. Persatuan Insurans Am Malaysia (PIAM) released the news of motorists will be the main beneficiary of the JPJs e-Insurance Project with effect from 1st January 2005. On 5th October 2004, Minister of Transport was launched an IT-based service with the full support of the JPJ, general insurers and takaful operators. The e-Insurance enables insurance companies to enter their policyholders motor insurance details and transmit them electronically to JPJs computer database for processing. With full implementation of e-Insurance, it minimizes the problems like long queues at the JPJ counters, shortening waiting times at the JPJ counters, reducing the need for repetitive capture of data will also ensure accuracy and consistency of data in JPJs database and eliminating physical motor cover notes will help resolve the problems of forged cover notes as well as reduce document inventory (PIAM, 2005). E-insur ance has brought to us many benefits but it still uncommon in Malaysia. E-commerce has brought a lot of questions. Is insurance industry suitable to apply e-commerce? How E-insurance ensured security and privacy of insureds information and data? What are the expectations of generation Y towards future E-insurance? How generation Y perceived adoption of E-insurance? Is adoption e-commerce an advantage or disadvantage for insurance industry? This study wants to lift up the veil of E-insurance. 1.3 Research objective The general objective of my study is to investigate the perception of generation Y towards E-insurance. The other objectives are: 1.) To study awareness and expectation of generation Y towards E-insurance. From this study, we want to know the high education generation Y perceived E-insurance. E-insurance is important for insurance industry in step out the first step of pursuing low cost customer services. Generation Y are their priority target of E-insurances product because generation Y have much of knowledge in computer. Generation Y treated as the future talented human capital of a country. They are high education and expertise in using computer. Therefore, their expectations and future requirements about E-insurance are important success factors of insurance industry. 2.) To examine the adoption of e-insurance in Malaysia E-insurance has not fully implemented in Malaysia. It is crucial to examine the current situation of adoption on e-insurance in Malaysia. 3.) To investigate the factors that can influence the perception of generation Y towards E-insurance and the adoption of e-insurance To establish long term relationship with customers, it is critical to investigate all the possible factors that may affect the views of the potential customers towards E-insurance. A good service is able to satisfy all the customers need. 1.4 Significance of study Insurance is essential for everyone. It provides a sense of security and peace of mind to us. It also provides financial stability to individual and businesses if insured risk occurs such as flooding, fires, accident or ill health. Insurance is a major component of financial sector. Nowadays, the adoption of e-commerce in financial sector has become obvious. Yet, the insurance sectors are lagging behind. This is mainly due to the complicated transaction involved in insurance industry. This study is aim to investigate the perception and expectation on generation Y on electronic insurance services as well as their willingness to accept E-insurance. Insurance industry in Malaysia have not fully implement e-insurance yet. Most of the consumers feel uncertainty towards this new e-commerce and some even do not aware about this. We are able to know the degree of awareness of generation Y towards e-insurance from the research. Generation Y are potential customers for e-insurance, their awareness of e-insurance is important to the development on insurance industry. According to previous research, it also showed that younger and high educated males with high level of income have higher probability to use internet banking services (Devlin Yeung, 2003). E-insurance also can be categorised as one kind of internet banking services, so perception of younger internet users towards e-insurance is important. The effect of liberalization and globalization around the world influenced the business sectors in Malaysia significantly. Liberalization allowed business transactions can be conducted cross over the boundaries of countries freely. E-commerce should be developed in Malaysia in order to gain the global competitiveness. Compared to other developing countries, Malaysia is lagging behind. In order to compete with other countries, Malaysia government need to support organization in adapting the changes in term of technological. E-commerce provides a new distribution channel for products and services which able to help companies deliver their products and services to customers efficiently all around the world. Although e-commerce provides many competitive advantages for business sector, however, insurance industry in Malaysia still have not implement the electronic insurance completely. It is necessary for government to generate effective strategy for establishing e-insurance in Malaysia. The antecedent of effective strategy is to obtain a clear understanding of perception of customer towards e-insurance. This study benefits government in term of more understand the customers need towards e-insurance, so government and business sector can complement with each other for establishing e-insurance in Malaysia successfully. Service itself is considered as interactive process whereby customers involved in the production process. Insurance is one kind of this service. Since insurance is an interactive process, customers viewpoint on the new electronic insurance must be paid with full attention. This study focuses on generation Ys response on the development of new electronic insurance because most internet users are generation Y now. With the generation Ys future wishes for electronic insurance, a user friendly and suitable E-insurance concept can be developed. This study also benefits insurance companies in developing the electronic insurance service which can satisfy customers need. A well-developed e-insurance service can meet customers requirement and increase their satisfaction. The speed of adoption on e-insurance in Malaysia will be improved. Society also benefited from the study because adoption in e-insurance enables them to access the insurance services through internet whenever and wherever they are. The success of establish e-insurance in Malaysia will bring many advantages to customers. E-insurance provides longer operation time, convenience, less transaction cost needed, and less processing time to customers. E-service has changed the way of people organize their lives. It enables people to make comparisons among the products or services through internet. The study also examines the customers concern towards security and privacy of e-insurance. Hence, after completed the study, the security and privacy of e-insurance systems can be enhanced according to the concern of society. This study investigate the relationship between generation Y and E-insurance and their expectation and perception on E-insurance in order to better establish a new era electronic insurance and to maintain long term relationship with customers. 1.5 Organization of study In chapter 1, the research begins with brief introduction to the topic â€Å"perception and expectation of generation Y towards E-insurance†. In the introduction, it briefly explained the term of e-insurance and generation Y and the relationship between them. After we have some basic ideas about the topic, problem statements of the study developed. The issues of e-insurance were addressed in the study. Objectives of the study are stated down and followed by explaining significant of study. Chapter 2: Literature review 2.1 Services and Goods Goods can be defined as physical products that being produced and sold to the market (Winsor, Sheth Manolis, 2004). In addition, goods also considered as something physical and tangible in nature that customers can feel, smell, taste or hear it prior purchase or make consumption (Rathmell, 1966; Shostack, 1977; Zeithaml, 1985). On the other hands, services are totally opposite to the characteristics of goods. Services normally are classified under intangible characteristics which cannot be touched, smelled, tasted, hear by customer before purchase and make consumption. Furthermore, services also can be classified as a product, a process involves of many activities and can be produced and consumed at the same time, and to some extent customers may participate in the service production process (Grà ¶nroos, 2000). One of the researchers defines service as something can be bought and sold but which you cannot drop on your feet, this definition points out intangible characteristics of service (Gummesson, 1987). Besides that, service also defines as an act that offered by other party (Lovelock and Wright, 2002). There are four main attributes that help in distinguishing between goods and services namely, tangible or intangible (the degree of physical feature), separability or inseparability (the degree of linkage between the product or service and providers and customers), variability or invariability (the degree consistency of the products or services attributes) and perishability (the degree of capacity for being stocked) (Berry, 1980; Fisk, 1993; Gronroos, 1998; Kotler, 1994; Shostack, 1977; Zeithaml, 1985). From the four main attributes, it clearly states that the things that classified as services only when it fulfilled the four main characteristics of intangibility, inseparability, variability and perishability. For example, hair cut service, it does not provide any tangible product to its customer but only intangible service, throughout the hair cut service, it need participation of customer, the hair cut services are inconsistency in quality and it cannot be stocked. Furthermore, among the four attributes of differentiating the goods and services, the intangible characteristic is the best definitive for services (Bateson, 1977; Bebko, 2000; Berry, 1980; Levitt, 1981; McDougall Snetsinger, 1990). Various definitions that used to define services stated above are prefers to include the intangibility features into the statements. Hence, intangibility characteristic of service is the most representative attribute for services in order to distinguish goods and services. However, the tangibility feature is becoming less useful and less definitive for distinguishing between goods and services in digital environment (Rust Oliver, 1999). This is due to digitized goods are consists of both tangible and intangible characteristics. For examples, online purchase DVD is intangible in nature because customers cannot touch or feel the product before the actual tangible product received. The development of electronic environment has blurred the clear distinctio n between goods and services by using intangibility attributes. In order to fill up the inadequacy of tangibility criterion, another framework which used four types of utilities to differentiate goods and services has been developed (Winsor, Sheth Manolis, 2004). The four types of utilities are time, place, form and possession. All retailers will provide time and place utilities to customers, the only differences can be make between goods and services is in term of form and possession (Rathmell, 1966; Hsieh Chu, 1992). Physical goods will only contributing little form utility for customers compared to service whereas the permanent of transfer of possession utility only completed when customers are purchased physical products rather than services (Clemes, 2000). According to this framework, insurance is classified as hybrid retailing or a mixture of goods and services because it provides a moderate degree of form and possession utilities. 2.2 E-service The new era of e-service has begun since the development of internet being introduced in 1994 (Ahonen, 2004). There are three phases of internet according to the previous research (Kalakota Robinson, 2001). The beginning phase (1994-1997) is home pages and website of every company available. The following phase (1997-2000) is taking part into e-commerce in business. The last phase (2000-) which means the current situation is to satisfy online consumers and try to take advantages of internet. However, the development of e-service of our country is lagging behind when compared to other foreign country. Although many researchers have defined e-service before, but there is no an exceptional definition for e-service. E-service can be known as a service that conducts through electronic method such as internet (Rust Kannan, 2002). There is a difference between technology based service and e-service concept, the latter concept need to be carried out through online method whereas technology based services can be an ATM service. Both of the concepts are benefited from development of information technology (Jà ¤rvinen Lehtinen, 2003). In an electronic environment, the service concept is important because the nature of the services is abstract and where the relationships between partners and customers are virtual (Grà ¶nroos, 2000). Since electronic insurance services are perceived as complex and difficult to use, therefore clear and well defined service concept should be emphasized (Jà ¤rvinen 2001; Ahonen Salonen 2005). There are four chosen characteristics, namely, intangibility, process nature, inseparability and interaction that used to test some selected e-services in previous research (Jà ¤rvinen Lehtinen, 2004). All e-services are intangibility in nature and remain intangibility if the consumers only search for information of particular product or service through online. There are only few services consists purely intangible characteristic. For example, previous studies stated that even financial services also aided tangible by their documents like loan agreement (Jà ¤rvinen Lehtinen, 2004). The characteristics of process nature also universal for all studied e-services which means that the customers need to be follow the specific procedures in order to get the services. Inseparability and interaction characteristics are deviated among different e-services (Jà ¤rvinen Lehtinen, 2004). Some characteristics of services in electronic environment have to be considered in order to shift the s ervice concept to (Ahonen, 2004). For e-service, it seldom needs personal interaction when compared to telephone based services (Lovelock, 2002). However, the argument is human factor plays an important role in service recovery when technical problems happened (Jà ¤rvinen Lehtinen, 2004). In addition, E-services can bring considerable profit for companies if they able to manage the e-service effectively. However, not all the products and services are suitable for online trading because internet as a marketing channel only able to realistically fulfill two out of five senses of customers which are sight and sound. Therefore, only products and services that fully utilize the two senses are suitable to sell online for example, CD (Stern, 1995). According to other researcher, Peterson (1997) suggested that the suitability of the products and services to be sold online based on three dimensions: (1) cost outlay and frequency of purchase; (2) value proposition; (3) degree of differentiation Based on the study, products and services that have low cost, high frequency in purchase, intangible value proposition and high degree of differentiation are more suitable to market through internet (Phau Poon, 2000). Is insurance suitable to sell online? Regarding to the three dimensions above, insurance has fulfilled two dimensions which are intangible value proposition and high degree of differentiation because insurance is considered as a customization service. Hence, insurance is considered suitable for marketing through internet. For successfully implement e-service, it not only depends of the suitability of the products and services but also depends on the customers perception towards e-service. Based on previous studies, the overall satisfaction of customer towards e-service can be improved through various factors which included convenience, saving time and money, ease of use, financial security and web site designed to be fun (Szymanski Hise, 2000; Meuter, 2000). Customers satisfaction is important determinant of successful e-service (Parasuraman Grewal, 2000). In order to successfully implement e-insurance in Malaysia, those factors also included in this study to determine adoption of e-insurance. 2.3 Insurance Insurance is defined as the evenhanded transfer of the risk of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care (Wikipedia, 2005). Insurer is the company that sells the insurance, and the insured is the party who buy the insurance. Insurance rate is the amount charged for a certain value of insurance. Insurance sold to consumers directly is known as direct insurance (Skipper, 1998). Meanwhile, direct insurance also can be defined as a service with particular terms and conditions agreed in an insurance policy. On the other hands, one of the researchers stated that part of the insurance service is to maintain a long term relationship between customers and insurance company rather than only holding legal responsibility with customers (Jà ¤rvinen, 1996). Intangibility, inseparability, perishability, heterogeneity and lack of ownership are characteristics of services (Cowell 1988; Zeithaml Bitner 1996). However, all these characteristics do not followed by insurance service. The tangibility of insurance services achieves through a physical paper of an insurance policy including a promise to pay compensation if a certain unforeseen event takes place. The insurance policy symbolizes the only evidence of that promise until losses occur (Majaro, 1982; 1985). In fact, no policyholder would prefer to have any losses, and thus we can conclude that consumers only purchase merely security or protection for their safety instead of compensation of losses. So, as a result it is in force to cause consumers consume insurance whole period that is a continuous consumption, but production is cross-sectional and dependent of the interaction of the consumer and the insurance company. Therefore, insurance service only partially fulfilled the characteris tic of inseparability. One of the unique natures of each service is heterogeneity on its part. There are various alternatives of insurance for consumers to choose which insurance policy is suitable for them but the terms and cover of most of the insurance is standardized (Jà ¤rvinen, 1998). In case of e-insurance, the heterogeneity part of the personal service forms the only unique part of insurance is eliminated. The back-office resources in insurance that used to balance the capacity can avoid perishability. As a result, large part of activities in E-insurance can be carried out without consumers existence and participation. Lastly, as regards to ownership, insurance holders actually own the partial ownership of the service because they reserve the right for claims settlements that will be paid from the reserves in the balance sheet of an insurance company by paying premium (Jà ¤rvinen, 2000). This means that insured consumers own their part of reserves, and that principle is based in Insurance Act. Co nsequently, we can conclude that the insurance service is quite specific from other services because it only fulfilled partially of the common service characteristics. One of the financial services is insurance, it seems to have different user frequency when compared to other bank services (Jà ¤rvinen, 2003). Specifically, consumers may have bank transactions weekly, but in case of insurance issues, such as risk analysis and insurance cover or claims applications, occur quite infrequently and with low frequency (Ahjos, 1999). Hence, there may be only one occurrence within few years, and that is premium payment. Thus, insurance deviates from bank services and in the case of Internet which means that consumers may never get used to e-insurance, because their actions are needed too rarely. Low frequency and infrequency may also be reasons that obstruct the consumers engagement, which may become the crucial point in developing e-insurance. Generally, insurance services is quite different from others banking services. Insurance companies have to take care of every step in implementing e-insurance successfully. This study is tries to unveil the mystery of insurance services in Malaysia. 2.4 Insurance in Malaysia The beginning of insurance launched in Malaysia can be traced to 18th and 19th centuries which transformed from the agency houses that acted as representative of insurance companies in United Kingdom. Hence, the insurance industry has been strongly influenced by the British insurance system and continued until today. At that time, almost all the insurance companies were established by foreign insurer. Domestic insurance companies were only being introduced in Malaysia after Independence Day. However, domestic insurance companies have faced failure and wound up due to inadequate technical and sound operation in the early 1960. To solve this problem, Malaysian government enacted insurance Act 1963 to regulate insurance industry which functioning under Ministry of Finance. The Insurance Act 1996 has replaced the Insurance Act 1963 on 1st January 1997 in order to supervise and regulate insurance industry more effectively (Ahmad Sungip, 2008). Basically, there are three types of insurance industry in Malaysia which included life insurance industry, general insurance industry and Takaful insurance industry (Aini Tee, 2003). Life insurance is insurance policy that covers variety of contingencies event occurred on human life whereas general insurance is all types of insurance policy except for life insurance. On the other hands, Takaful is insurance which based on Islamic principles (EconomicWatch, 2009). There are five main statutory insurance associations in Malaysia namely, Persatuan Insuran Am Malaysia (PIAM), Life Insurance Association of Malaysia (LIAM), Persatuan Insuran Kebangsaan Malaysia (NIAM), Insurance Brokers Association of Malaysia (IBAM) and Association of Malaysian Loss Adjuster (AMLA) (PIAM, 2009). Each statutory insurance association has different function. PIAM is an association of general (non-life) insurers, LIAM is an association of life insurers, NIAM is represents locally incorporated insurer with m ore than 51% Malaysian equity, IBAM is an association of insurance brokers, AMLA is an association of insurance brokers. Insurance companies in Malaysia were only started to conduct e-commerce in 1999 which was much slower when compared to other developed countries. During that period, Bank Negara Malaysia has allowed some of the insurance companies to establish Malaysia first interactive insurance website which enabled insured can make online payment and renewal of motor vehicles insurance policy. Till April 2000, Bank Negara Malaysia allowed a full range of life, general an